Disability as Power in the Works of Mary Duffy, Frida Kahlo, and Vassar

What do you do without either of your arms? What do you do for a living constrained to a wheelchair? What do you do without control over your own body? Many people in the world today spend their lives wishing things were not as they were, attempting to forget how they are, or trying to change how they are going to be. When "disabled" people succeed, it is commonly thought that those individuals are amazing for overcoming their disabilities and thriving in life. Is this really what they are doing? The following three women, Mary Duffy, Frieda Kahlo, and Vassar Miller transform their disabilities into the ability to create complex forms of art that force the audience to gain a different perspective on disabilities. Their disabilities become their power. The artists use this power to force their audiences to look at their disabilities in an utterly new way using the "stare and tell" method. These women do not succeed despite their disabilities, but instead succeed because of them . The "stare and tell" is a term that Rosemarie Garland Thomson, a disability studies scholar and writer, has created to explain a method in performance art that forces the audience to look at disabilities in an entirely new light. She states "As a fusion of both seeing and telling, disability performance art foregrounds the body as an object both to be viewed and to be explained." The artist first beckons the audiences to break the social "normative" and forces the audience to stare at the artist?s disability. Once the attention of the audience is solely on the artist and his or her disability, the method then takes on the "tell" aspect and enables the audience to become aware of what exactly the artist has to say in his or her own words. Mary Duff... ...ly amazing affects she had on her audience. Although she died in 1998 at the age of seventy-four, her poetry is still gaining fame and affecting people across the United States. Often, many people do not know of such individuals. If one has heard of them is it most likely in the category of amazing individuals who are able to overcome life?s most challenging obstacles and succeed in ways never imagined. This is just not so. These women do not succeed in spite of their disabilities, but instead succeed because of them. Mary Duffy, Vassar Miller, and Freida Kahlo have all forced their audiences to visually give attention to their disability and thus have challenged societies stereotypical assumptions, whether on stage, in writing, or on a canvas. Their endeavors are summarized in the words of Frieda Kahlo, "Feet, what do I need them for, if I have wings to fly?"

Calls for Change in High School Mathematics Essay

Mathematic educators, parents and students are calling for proper changes in approaches to learning mathematics in high schools. The need to improve learning of mathematics in schools is highly recognized and underlined. Thus, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics published the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics that offered recommendations for high school mathematics reform. In addition, the Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences in their official report ‘The Mathematical Sciences Curriculum K–12: What Is Still Fundamental and What Is Not’ stresses the importance of new topics and techniques in the secondary schools. New approaches should develop new learning techniques that would be discrete from statistics, mathematics, and emphasis on algebra and geometry should be properly re-assessed according to different abilities and needs of students who are taking mathematics course in the secondary school and high school respectively. The need for change and innovation is generally driven by emergence of advanced computing technologies that offers excellent opportunities for school educators to replace manipulative traditional techniques with more complex realistic problem-solving techniques. In its turn, the National Science Board Commission issued a report ‘Educating Americans for the 21st Century’ challenging courses in algebra and pre-calculus and stressing the importance of developing integrated mathematical sciences curriculum in the secondary school. Researchers argue that new curriculum will positively affect students’ achievement outcomes in the secondary and high schools. To make changes more effective teachers are required to understand the advantage of curriculum’s full scope and its consequences; students are required to support the expectations of classroom environment. The Core-Plus Mathematic Project is newly developed curriculum for high school mathematics. Of course, the Core-Plus Mathematic Project or CPMP curriculum is a matter of debates and controversies as not everyone admits the need of high school mathematics reforms. Nonetheless, the CPMP curriculum is worked out with assistance of mathematics education researchers, instructional specialists and classroom teachers. Moreover, the curriculum is shaped by empirical evidence gathered from students and teachers who are willing to participate in field testing. In particular, organization of mathematics curriculum should be interpreted in terms of teaching and assessment recommendations and should follow the standards set in the above-mentioned reports. New mathematics curriculum is a three-year mathematics course for high-school students who are allowed to take the fourth year to prepare for college mathematics. Newly designed curriculum differs from more traditional approaches as new curriculum encourages students’ understanding of mathematics – statistics, probability, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and discrete mathematics. Learning mathematics is developed in focused units that combine fundamental ideas with mathematical habits of mind. It means that new curriculum stresses the need to connect function, data analysis and symmetry with recursive and visual thinking. In contrast to traditional approaches to mathematics, new curriculum emphasizes the role of mathematical modeling and problem-solving instead of simple calculus. Researchers say the primary goal of curriculum improvement is to enhance students’ understanding and comprehension of key mathematical processes and concepts, to enhance student’s ability to use mathematical concepts in real-world problem-solving. Graphic calculators should enhance students’ understanding and abilities to solve authentic problems. Improved instructional materials encourage active teaching and learning processes that will primarily focus on problem situations, abstraction and analysis. Oral and written communication, reasoning with ability to represent, and conceptual understanding are highly appreciated and encouraged. All courses centre on mathematical reasoning and thinking with abilities to develop formal proof. Additional fourth year course will allow to keep students, who prepare for college mathematics, despite whether their undergraduate program is based on calculus. Students interested in mathematics are encouraged to be accelerated into the fourth course year. Today, many researches are focus on identifying whether new curriculum meets its specific goals. In particular, they try to reveal whether the learning outcomes based on new patterns of mathematics learning process differ from outcomes based on more traditional curriculum. During the past eight years researchers conducted various studies to examine mathematical achievement in classroom with CPMP curricula. Research studies have revealed that performance of CPMP students is much better than that of students with traditional interpretation of mathematical representation. It means that problem-solving and recursive thinking appear to be more effective in learning mathematics than simple understanding of key concepts of processes. Further, CPMP students are characterized by higher grade results at the end of the years than students with traditional approach to mathematics. Summing up, recent researches have indicated that CPMP students perform better than students with traditional curriculum. CPMP students are characterized by better abilities to interpret mathematical representation and calculation, to measure conceptual understanding and to recognize the importance of problem-solving. CPMP students are better in probability and statistics, algebraic manipulative skills, etc. Nonetheless, researchers argue that student’s success in college mathematics doesn’t fully depend on CPMP curriculum. Other factors, as, for example, student’s attentiveness, readiness to participate in learning process, self-awareness, classroom environment, play their important role in student’s high school mathematics performance. With guidance from educators, researchers and teachers, curriculum developers will be able to build on stronger patters of student outcomes. References Schoen, H. L. , & Hirsch, Ch. R. (2003). Responding to Calls for Change in High School Mathematics: Implications for Collegiate Mathematics. The Mathematical Association of America Monthly, February, pp. 109-123. Available on-line from http://www. jstor. org/stable/3647770 .

Pope John Paul II His Influence on the World Essay

Pope John Paul II: Influence on the World Pope John Paul was one of the most influential persons of the 21st century. He changed the way the Catholic Church looked at the world and vice versa. Unlike most other predecessors, he stressed on dialogue and understanding among the people of the world. He sought to bring the people of the world together through the message of both love and peace. The role he played in destroying communism and bringing dictatorship around the world to an end gained wide media coverage. His dialogue between different faiths was admirable. During his papacy that stretched from 1978 to his death in 2005, he had a positive impact on the Catholic scene in particular and the world in general. The Pope helped in†¦show more content†¦As reported in the Washington Post by Applebaum, when the Pope visited Poland in 1979, he told them not to be afraid. Unlike what the regime thought, there was a sea of humanity waiting to greet the Pope. Hence this model could be demonstrated in other communist countries like East Germany and East Germany (‘How the Pope Defeated Communism). Pope John Paul reached out to other faiths to foster a spirit of unity among religions. For instance, he went to a mosque, spoke to Muslims and advocated full rights for all groups in Islamic countries. The high point of his papacy was when he called Judaism the elder brother of Christianity. It was the Pope’s belief in prayer that led to the 1986 World Day of Prayer for Peace in Assisi, Italy. Leaders from various religions like Buddhism, Shintoism, Zoroastrianism, Native American groups, to name a few, gathered to pray along with Christians from all denominations of Christianity like the Catholics, the Protestants, and the Orthodox for world peace. Islamic extremists attacked the US in 2011 in the name of Islam. The Pope called for another meeting where he declared ‘Terrorism never again’. All the leaders jointly condemned religious violence at this meeting. The Pope showed the common strand running in the three Semitic religions viz. Judaism, Christianity and Islam. InShow MoreRelatedBiography Of Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli s Influence On The Contribution Of Significant People Or Schools Of Thought1334 Words   |  6 Pageswas sent to a seminary to study since his parents were to poor to afford to send him to a school. While studying at the seminary his interest for Christianity grew. He then studied in Rome having earned a scholarship. Roncallli was ordained not long after in 1904. This was the start of his social justice work which grew stronger when he was servicing the Italian army during WWI. In 1958 he became the Catholic Pope and was known as Pope John XXIII. During his papacy he made some significant changes Read MoreThe Significance of the Pope625 Words   |  3 Pagesmore lasting or have exerted more influence on the course of history than that of the papacy. As the recognized successor to St. Peter, who was ordained by Jesus Christ as the bishop of Rome and the leader of the universal church, the pope represents the spiritual authority of Christendom and stands as a symbol of union within the Catholic Church. The continual succession, from as early as 32 AD until present day, has seen a total of 265 popes (The List of Popes) hold the title of Vicar of ChristRead More Pope John Paul IIs Influence on the Fall of Communism Essay1976 Words   |  8 PagesTHESIS STATEMENT Both the words and actions of Pope John Paul II were crucial to the downfall of communism in Germany as well as his native Poland. PURPOSE STATEMENT This paper will discuss Pope John Paul II’s role in the fall of communism in Germany and his native Poland through in depth research and an analysis of biographical research. INTRODUCTION Even as a child, people knew that Karol Wojtyla was destined for greatness. Even his mother bragged to all her neighbors that her newbornRead MoreLong Lost Family1633 Words   |  7 Pagestake time and effort on both sides. The analogy of disconnected family members is used frequently in the discussion of the centuries long rift between Catholics and Jews. It is apt. For, in the 50 years since the promulgation of Nostra Aetate by Pope Paul VI, Catholics and Jews have come far in healing 2,000 years of miscommunication, false pride, inaccurate understanding, failure to witness, and lost opportunities for unity. Throughout the selected readings that are the basis of this paper, it isRead MoreThe Relationship Between Morality and Religion in the Dalai Lama and John Pope Ii Perspective1609 Words   |  7 PagesMorality and Religion In the Dalai Lama and John Pope II Perspective The complexities on the issue of the relationship between religion and morality is intriguing in the sense that there is no right or wrong answer, but merely your own intrinsic belief. The 14th Dalai Lama, spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhists, believes that you cant have religion without morals, but you can have morals without religion. This seems to contrast with the view of John Paul II, in the sense that he passionately believesRead MoreThe Vaticans View on the Israeli-Palestinain Conflict4506 Words   |  19 Pagesapproaches that various popes from Pius X to John Paul II used to the handle the Palestinian question. This paper will explore the following questions and offer answers to them. What stance did Pope John Paul II take to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict prior to becoming pope in 1979? What stance did he take on the issue after he succeeded Pope John Paul I? And, finally what was his attitude in the latter stage of his papacy which ended with his death in April 2005? John Paul II’s Attitude TowardsRead More The Fruitless Pursuit of The Dalai Lama and Pope John Paul II4925 Words   |  20 PagesThe Fruitless Pursuit of The Dalai Lama and Pope John Paul II I. Introduction: â€Å"Glinting orange through the green creepers, the Kombi familys mud-hut is barely visible now. Alphonse Kombi was murdered by militiamen in February. His wife, Bimosa, watched them eat his heart before they raped her, neighbours say. The trauma drove her insane. Two of the Kombis four children had already died of malnutrition. Then, a fortnight ago, a distant relative came to collect the two survivors - an emaciatedRead MoreReformation of the Church864 Words   |  3 PagesJesus was founded by Ignatius Loyola, once an officer in the army of Navarre. Although initially quite focused on his military career, this was cut short in 1521 at the siege of Pamplona. Ignatius had become inflicted with injuries and it was during this time that his interest in the lives of saints and Christ had sprouted, reading books about these subjects to while away his time. His readings prompted Ignatius to set out on a pilgrimage to Manresa, where he eventually embraced a new religious techniqueRead MoreHow the Roman Catholic Church Has Changde History2060 Words   |  8 Pagesthe world but many. The whole world went through drastic changes in the twentieth century such as the economic downfalls, destruction of governments, and failure of political systems. Through the economic and spiritual support of many different Catholic charities, such as The Knights of Columbus, the Catholic Church came to the aid of many people in need and changed the course of history. The Catholic Church also experienced the most influential people during this time period. Pope John Paul II influencedRead MoreChurch In Asia Essay1492 Words   |  6 Pagesidentified issues and challenges. The seventh assembly follows up the Special Assembly of the Synod of Bishops for Asia (established in Rome, 1998) and the Apostolic Exhortation Ecclesia in Asia of Pope John Paul II (India, 1999) with a hope to â€Å"enter into the community of Christ’s disciples and to share in his life and mission† at the beginning of the Third Millennium. In 2012, the X-FABC, marking the fortieth anniversary of the FABC, was held in Xuà ¢n Lá »â„¢c, Vietnam with the theme â€Å"FABC at Forty Years

Obesity Is The Fast Food Industry - 850 Words

There is an issue in America, if not across all nations, which begs discussion. The issue plaguing society is the fast food industry. It matters not if you are young, old, rich or poor; the fast food industry is almost impossible to ignore in this era. One may raise the question of what exactly is fast food. Merriam-Webster defines defines fast-food as food â€Å"designed for ready availability, use, or consumption and with little consideration given to quality or significance† (1). Diving deeper into this issue beyond the significant lack of nutritional value, lies not only the consumption of fast food but also the constant bombardment of advertising society as a whole is exposed to. Think about it: how long can a person watch a popular television channel without seeing a commercial for a popular fast food chain? How long can one listen to a favored radio station without hearing about the latest and greatest hamburger? In addition, a person cannot spend much time on t he internet without seeing an advertisement for fried chicken. The concept of the fast food industry and the tremendous effects their advertising schemes can have on our subconscious will be the main focus of this essay. In describing the history of the fast food industry, POSitive Magazine recounts that the concept may have originated in Ancient Rome with vendors focusing on the masses of people housed in crowded areas lacking room for personal food preparation. This idea made its way to America andShow MoreRelatedThe Responsibility of the Fast Food Industries for Obesity1391 Words   |  6 PagesThe rapid growth of obesity rates in the United States continues to affect Americans on a daily basis. Obesity caused by fast food industries remains to be a controversial issue, especially in America. The big debate about the continuous rise of obesity rates revolves around who is at fault. Do we blame the consumers or the fast food industries? Although fast food companies persuade us with cheap prices and convenience, we should be able to take full responsibility for our food choices and our healthRead MoreChildhood Obesity : Obesity And Obesity Essay1671 Words   |  7 PagesFight to End Obesity Childhood obesity has increased drastically over the past years and has become a health risk to children. In fact, childhood obesity has doubled in numbers in the past thirty years (Childhood Obesity Facts). Obesity occurs when an individual becomes overweight and can be diagnosed by using the body mass index or BMI scale. Obesity causes many diseases in children which cannot be cured without a doctor, in result, childhood obesity drives high health care costs. The existenceRead MoreFast Food1145 Words   |  5 PagesDraft 3 Fast food Obesity is an epidemic that is sweeping over the United States today. It’s affecting both adults and children. With the increase in fast food availability and a decrease in the time most Americans have to prepare nutritious meals at home, it’s obvious why more people are eating at fast food restaurants. Obesity is a growing problem in the United States and more and more children are being affected. But do uneducated families have the right to put the blame on fast food restaurantsRead MoreThe Problem Of Childhood Obesity1261 Words   |  6 Pagesanswer is simple: fast food is convenient. Fast food restaurants are located just about everywhere, and it is extremely simple to find one on every corner. In his article â€Å"Don’t Blame the Eater†, David Zinczenko explains that growing up â€Å"lunch and dinner†¦was a daily choice between McDonald’s, Taco Bell, Kentucky Fried Chicken, or Pizza Hut† (241). The author indicates that these are s till the only available options for children to get an affordable meal. Zinczenk explains that fast food has not changedRead MoreDon t Blame The Eater Essay1007 Words   |  5 Pagesthat fast-food industry should accept full responsibility for a serious public problem: leading American kids to obesity. Zinczenko supports his claim with his personal experience to show how the fast-food chains marketing on them with low price. He also said it is not easy for those obese kids to turn their lives back. He believes this should be considered as a public health problem because their obesity causes the society huge public health losses. Zinczenko insists that if fast-food industry doesn’tRead MoreBlame For Obesity1279 Words   |  6 PagesWho is to blame for American Obesity?   Ã‚  Ã‚   Obesity is a well-known epidemic in the the United States and in the world. Fast food industries are a common source to cause of obesity due to advertisements and lack of labeling many of their products, which all lead on an effect towards the youth population, otherwise known as the new generation. Society has conformed to unhealthy eating in not just adults but also children , this is due to the fact the that they are being influenced by those around themRead MoreObesity : A Condition Of Excess Body Fat That Affect People Of All Ages857 Words   |  4 Pages27, 2016 Obesity is a condition of excess body fat that affect people of all ages. Unfortunately, children are the most affected generation of obesity. In the United States, the obesity rate has increased over the past years causing diseases and health problems. There are many causes of obesity, such as over-eating, genes, hormones, and the lack of physical activities. â€Å"They Say/ I Say† book includes two articles that discuss the obesity epidemic in the United States. The first article, â€Å"Don’t BlameRead MoreFast Food and Obesity in Adults990 Words   |  4 Pages2013 Fast Food and Obesity in Adults In Aprils addition of Men’s Health magazine there is a picture of salted golden French fries inside a white cup. This advertisement invokes hunger for unhealthy and cheap fast food to consumers. The fast food industries false advertisements, unhealthy food, and long term effects of consuming fast food all lead to the causes and effects of adulthood obesity in the lives of thousands of Americans today. McDonalds, Burger King, Wendy’s, and other fast food industriesRead MoreFast Food Essay816 Words   |  4 Pages Obesity is a major food epidemic. This food epidemic has become so global that it is a leading death cause in America. Many Americans have vouched for a sedentary lifestyle due to their unhealthy eating habits. What they do not realize is the unhealthy food choices that they make now will affect them in the future. The food industry is a major contributor to this. The food industry is affecting the health of future generations due to how easy it is for people to access and their over consumptionRead MoreThe Effects Of Fast Food On Children991 Words   |  4 PagesThe impact obesity has on a child can become life changing. â€Å"According to the CDC if current trends continue, 1 of 3 U.S. adults will have diabetes by 2050† (Evans, W, 2006). Behind the mask of obesity is a child that falls into the trap of fast food advertisement. Overall, the fast food i ndustry should be more socially responsible and not direct their marketing strategy of unhealthy food choices to children; this will cut down the percentage of children suffering from childhood obesity that leads

Apple Research Paper - 1268 Words

Apple Inc. was founded on April 1, 1976 in Cupertino, CA and was incorporated on January 3, 1977 (Apple, 2010). The company was founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Jobs also asked his former colleague from Atari, Ronald Wayne to join them in their startup. Wayne designed the first Apple logo. In early 1976 Jobs approached a local company store, The Byte Shop, said they would be interested in the machine, but only if it came completely assembled (Foljanty, 2010). The shop ordered 50 Apple I computers which sold for $666.66. The three owners would assemble the Apple Is at night in their garage still managed to deliver the ordered Apple Is in ten days. In April of 1976 Ron Wayne resigned from Apple Computer because he felt the financial†¦show more content†¦The largest storage capacity for an iPod was 160 gigabytes as of March 2010. Users of the iPods use iTunes to hold their digital files and transfer those files to their iPods. iTunes was released on January 9, 2001 (App le Inc., 2001). You can also connect to the iTunes Store via the Internet to purchase and download music, music videos, television shoes, iPod games, audiobooks, podcasts, movies, and ringtones. According to Steve Jobs (2010), â€Å"iTunes is pretty remarkable. People have downloaded 11.7b songs from iTunes. Over 450m TV episodes. 100m movies, 35m books.160m accounts with credit cards and 1-click. Its the number one online media store in the world. (Engadget, 2010). Steve Jobs announced the release of the iPad on January 27, 2010 at a press conference in San Francisco (Apple Inc., 2010). The iPad is a revolutionary device that can be use to browse the web, reading and sending e-mails, looking at photos, watching videos, listening to music, playing games, and reading e-books just to name a few of the capabilities (Apple Inc., 2010). Once the iPad was released in April 2010 it sold 3 million devices in 80 days in the US (Apple Inc., 2010) Apple current uses Ernst Young LLP as their audit firm. Ernst Young is a global leader in tax, advisory services, transactions, assurance, and strategic growth markets (Ernst Young, n.d.). Before Ernst Young LLP Apples used KPMG LLP who is a worldwide presence in auditing, tax and advisoryShow MoreRelatedApple Research Paper1712 Words   |  7 Pages-Introduce Apple -Brief history -Business perspective -Products -Past problems -Diversification -Current product portfolio -Revenue ïÆ'   overall company performance -Profit -ROA -Stock Price (template for product portfolio) Year -Introduce Smartphone Industry -Google -RIM Competitors- introduce figures -Samsung -Target Market -Marketing mix -Describe products -Functions -Packaging -History -Design -Price -Appearance -Distribution Apple Store -Promotion -Ads, SymbolsRead MoreApple Incorporated Research Paper1963 Words   |  8 PagesApple Incorporated: An Analysis Adit Singh Business 50.1 Company Research Paper Apple Inc. Technology has taken an uprising since the late 20th century to our world today. Everyone essentially owns some sort of technological device from cellphones to computers. 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Throughout the following paragraphs, the paper will discuss the primary components of the strategic management process. The paper will indicate the importance of why a company should use the strategic management process. Finally, the paper will close with the discussion of the research that found regarding Apple describing the strategic management process that the company uses inRead MoreThe Invasion Of Privacy And Concern For Safety1624 Words   |  7 Pagessecurity. Broader theories of this research question would be how the government’s interaction with technology and security influence how people think about their own personal privacy and safety as well as our national security. Some central questions that are critical to how to analyze this growing problem are the following: What does the NSA really collect and how does that differ from what people believe that they collect? What is the signif icance of the FBI asking Apple to create a backdoor into theirRead MoreApple Juice As A Critical Review Outline For The Written Final Exam1444 Words   |  6 PagesMethod for Patulin Detection in Apple Juice - A Critical Review Outline for the Written Final Exam I) Introduction: A) Information about the research article: 1) Full Citation: Xiao, H.; Fu, S. J. AOAC Int. 2012, 95, 1709–1712. 2) Title: â€Å"A Sensitive Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Method for the Determination of Patulin in Apple Juice.† 3) Goal/Thesis: To develop, improve, and validate an existing AOAC method for trace level detection of patulin in apple juice products by GC-MS. 4) OverallRead MoreInduction Of Decision Trees : Analysis1571 Words   |  7 Pages The paper, Induction of Decision Trees, briefly discusses the history of machine learning algorithms, the decision tree family of algorithms and their various use cases before giving an in depth explanation of the ID3 algorithm. This essay focuses on a couple of central ideas behind induction on decision trees. The first section will contain general background information and context leading up to the creation of decision trees. Once the context is established, there will be a quick introductionRead MoreApples: Ethical or Unethical Practices?1114 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction As large corporations’ sales and operations are becoming global than ever before, Apple has found ways to maximize its net income and increase shareholder value in today’s global competitive environment. Apple, being the most valuable company with $433B in market value (Financial Times, 2013), having the most brand value with $104 billion (Badenhausen, 2013), and being the most profitable corporation with $41 billion (Schwartz, 2013), has been viewed under the microscope on its everyRead MoreEnvironmental Costs Classification : Prevention Activities Essay1316 Words   |  6 Pagesinnovative cooling system to reuse water (W) - Design light and small packaging (L) - Create technologies that use paper more efficiently (L) - Form own green chemistry advisory board to minimize or eliminate toxin in supply chain (L) - Recycle Apple products(A) - Invent Liam, new iPhone recycling robot Detection Activities: - Conduct regular audits to ensure that suppliers source virgin paper form sustainably managed forests or controlled wood source (L) - Detailed energy audits at supplier facilities(A)Read MoreBig Companies And Samsung Electronics Company998 Words   |  4 PagesElectronics Company as a successful case of the leading global company. The important basis of this paper based on single case design which help to make us understand in depth and the methodology is much more focused on contemporary phenomenon within a real business context. Executive Summary The author intentions in this article are that the Samsung Electronic is doing very well in the market and comparatively Apple Inc their profit has increase through year to year. It is happened due the implementation

Numerical Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction at Seismic Fault Pulses Free Essays

string(197) " types of dirt media with a broad scope of shear–wave speed \(Volt\) were considered to cover soft to really heavy dirt in conformity with site categorization introduced in ASCE7–10 \[ 11 \] \." Numeric Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction at Seismic Fault Pulses Abstraction—Numeric analysis of soil–structure systems at seismal mistake pulsations has investigated. Vibration transmissibility of the soil–structure interaction has analysed for super-structures with different aspect ratios positioned on assorted dirt types and different foundations have studied. Soil construction interaction with geometric nonlinearity has been considered with forward directionality and fling measure types of mathematical seismal mistake pulsations. We will write a custom essay sample on Numerical Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction at Seismic Fault Pulses or any similar topic only for you Order Now It has been analyzed that nonlinear SSI is tend to magnify the acceleration responses when subjected to low frequence incident pulsations below normalized threshold frequences. These thresholds associate with dirt categorization, so that different dirt type has assorted shear moving ridge speed. With increased shear wave speed of the implicit in dirt makes the threshold frequence additions. Keywords—Nonlinear soil–structure interaction, response analysis, seismal mistake, land daze, swaying isolation. Introduction SHOCK and quiver isolation reduces the excitement transmitted to systems necessitating protection. An illustration is the interpolation of isolators between equipment and foundations back uping the equipment. The isolators act to cut down effects of support gesture on the equipment and to cut down effects of force transmitted by the equipment to the supporting construction. Isolators act by debaring and hive awaying energy at resonating frequences of the isolation system, thereby diminishing force degrees transmitted at higher frequences. The dampers act by dispersing energy to cut down the elaboration of forces that occur at resonance [ 1 ] . The chief thought in basal isolation is to cut down the seismal responses by infixing low–stiffness, high–damping constituents between the foundation and the construction [ 2 ] . This manner, the natural period and damping of the construction will be increased, which can cut down the responses of the superstructure, particularly i nter–story impetuss and floor accelerations [ 3 ] . Alternatively, base supplantings in those systems, particularly under near–fault land gestures, are increased [ 4 ] . The first concerns about this issue were arisen after 1992 Landers and so 1994 Northridge temblors, where long–period pulse–type land gestures were observed in near–fault records. Evidence show that temblor records in near–field parts may hold big energy in low frequences and can do drastic responses in base stray constructions [ 5 ] . Past surveies in the literature reveal that nonlinear soil– construction interaction ( SSI ) including foundation upheaval and dirt output can exhibit basal isolating effects due to hysteretic damping of the implicit in dirt. These effects can be important during strong land gestures when the superstructure is mounted on a shallow foundation with sufficiently low inactive perpendicular burden bearing safety factor [ 6 ] . On the other m anus, geometry of the superstructure should besides enable the swaying gestures of the foundation to emerge as a singular manner of quiver in seismal public presentation of the soil–structure system. In such status, the so–called inverted–pendulum constructions [ 7 ] can profit from energy absorbing capacity of the implicit in dirt viz. swaying isolation. This context motivated Koh and Hsiung [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] to analyze base isolation benefits of 3D rocking and upheaval. In their surveies, three–dimensional cylindrical stiff block rested on a Winkler foundation of independent springs and dashpots were examined. They compared response of the theoretical account under earthquake–like excitements when the foundation was allowed to elate versus no–uplift status. It was concluded that curtailing upheaval can present higher emphasiss and accelerations inside the construction. The purpose of this paper is shock response analysis of the soil– co nstruction systems induced by near–fault pulsations. Vibration transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is evaluated utilizing daze response spectra ( SRS ) . An in–depth parametric survey is conducted. Medium–to–high rise edifices with different aspect ratios every bit good as foundations with different safety factors located on different dirt types are studied. Two types of near–fault land dazes with different pulsation periods every bit good as pulse amplitudes are selected as input excitement. Linear versus nonlinear SSI status are considered instead and the corresponding consequences are compared. II. N UMERICAL MODEL The soil–structure system modeled in this survey consists of multi–story constructing constructions based on surface mat foundation located on dirt medium. Numeric theoretical account subjected to near–fault land dazes is schematically illustrated in Fig. 1. A. Superstructure Shear edifice theoretical accounts are most normally used in research surveies on seismically isolated edifices. To this purpose, a generic simplified theoretical account is created to stand for a category of structural systems with a given natural period and distribution of stiffness over the height [ 10 ] . In this survey, the superstructure is a 3D shear constructing habitue in program and height to avoid the effects of geometrical dissymmetry. Requirements for including near–field effects are considered harmonizing to ASCE7–10 [ 11 ] . Dead and unrecorded tonss are assumed 600 and 200kg/m2, severally. The narrative tallness of 3.0mand figure of narratives equal to 10, 15, and 20 are selected in order to stand for medium–to–high–rise edifices that can rationally hold shallow foundations on different types of dirt medium. First–mode natural periods of fixed–base construction are 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0sfor 10– , 15– , and 20à ¢â‚¬â€œstory edifices, severally. These natural periods are consistent with approximative cardinal period expressions introduced in ASCE7–10. The analyses have been performed utilizing OpenSEES package [ 12 ] . Rayleigh theoretical account with muffling ratio equal to 5 % of critical damping is assigned to the superstructure. In this instance, superstructure elements are assumed with no ductileness and P–Delta geometrical nonlinearity is included. FIG 1 B. Interacting System The interacting system called infrastructure consists of soil– foundation ensemble which induces base–isolating effects to the construction. The foundation is a square mat with thickness of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0mfor 10– , 15– , and 20–story edifices, severally. Brick elements are used to pattern the foundation. Dimensions of the foundation program were designed harmonizing to perpendicular burden bearing capacity of dirt medium. Therefore, different foundation program dimensions are calculated sing to different dirt types every bit good as different safety factors. The foundation is assumed to be inflexible and no embedment is considered in this survey. In order to see dirt effects, four types of dirt media with a broad scope of shear–wave speed (Volt) were considered to cover soft to really heavy dirt in conformity with site categorization introduced in ASCE7–10 [ 11 ] . The dirt is considered as a homogeneous half–space medium and is non modeled straight in this survey. Simplified theoretical accounts are used to enforce substructure effects including dirt flexibleness, radiation damping, tenseness cut–off, and dirt output on the foundation. The horizontal ( sway ) electric resistances can be straight obtained utilizing Cone theoretical account expressions [ 13 ] . However, swaying and perpendicular electric resistances, because of part of foundation upheaval and dirt output nonlinear effects, could non be straight calculated utilizing lumped theoretical account in perpendicular and rocking waies. In perpendicular and swaying waies, the foundation country is discretized over a sufficient figure of nodes. The discretization of foundation program country has been done in conformity with so–called subdisk method recommended by Wolf [ 14 ] to cipher perpendicular and swaying dynamic electric resistance of dirt. In order to allow the foundation upheaval and dirt output phenomena contribute in finite component mold of soil–structure system the perpendicular nonlinear elastic–perfectly fictile spread stuff is assigned to the perpendicular contact elements. FIG 2 III. MATHEMATICAL NEAR–FAULT PULSES Idealized pulsations, used in this survey, are described by sinusoidal maps proposed by Sasani and Bertero every bit good as Kalkan and Kunnath that represent fling measure and frontward directionality type of land gestures [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] . The mathematical preparations of the acceleration clip history of fling–step and forward–directivity pulsations are presented in ( 1 ) , and ( 2 ) , severally. Fling–Step Pulse img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1571341.001.png"/ img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1571341.002.png"/ whereCalciferoldenotes the maximal amplitude of the land supplanting derived by dual clip integrating of land acceleration, ( )Ta, and so T andThyminedenote pulse period and pulse reaching clip, severally.IPulse amplitude and pulse period are the two cardinal input parametric quantities of the idealised pulsation theoretical accounts. In this research, pulse–to–fixed–base construction period ratio (ThymineT ) is assumed to fall within 0.5 to 2.5. Within this scope, existent near–field records can be replaced by idealised pulsations and outstanding belongingss of structural response are captured with sensible estimate [ 17 ] , [ 18 ] . Furthermore, pulse amplitude matching to different excitement degrees varies from moderate to really strong land gestures in this survey. For this intent, peak land speed ( PGV ) varies from 20 to 220cm/sto stand for moderate to really strong land gestures, severally. In this survey, unidirectional excitement is exerted to th e base when the simplified pulse theoretical accounts of fling measure and forward directionality are used. IV. PARAMETRIC STUDY It is good known that the response of soil–structure system depends on geometric and dynamic belongingss of the construction and the beneath dirt. These effects can be incorporated into the studied theoretical account by the undermentioned non–dimensional parametric quantities [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] : img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1571341.003.png"/ where a0,hole,Hydrogen,Volt,Strontium, andBacillusbase for non– dimensional frequence, round frequence of the fixed–base construction, superstructure tallness, shear–wave speed of dirt, slenderness ratio, and breadth of the superstructure, in the same order. Non–dimensional frequence parametric quantity,a0, is introduced as an index for the structure–to–soil stiffness ratio. In this survey, this parametric quantity is assumed 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2 to cover different degrees of dirt flexibleness. Harmonizing to ( 1 ) , the a0 peers to 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 is matching to shear–wave speed of dirt 754, 377, 188, and 94samarium, severally. Sing to ( 4 ) ,Strontiumparametric quantity bases for slenderness of + [ ] T + + the superstructure. In this paper, values of 2 and 4 are assigned toStrontiumparametric quantity in order to stand for low every bit good as highaandStrontium, are typically considered as the cardinal parametric quantities of the soil–aspect ratio. These two mentioned parametric quantities, 0structure system [ 19 ] . Besides, with respect to nonlinear SSI incorporated in this parametric survey, the undermentioned non– dimensional parametric quantity is besides considered: img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1571341.004.png"/ whereNitrogen,uouN, andSFdenote the dirt bearing capacity under strictly perpendicular inactive burden, the perpendicular applied burden, and factor of safety against perpendicular burden bearing of the foundation, severally.Degree fahrenheitis set equal to 1.2, 1.85, and 2.5 to stand for severely–loaded, instead heavily–loaded, and instead lightly–loaded foundations, severally [ 21 ] . For daze response analysis of the soil–structure system, maximal response acceleration at a givenIth narrative (MRA) is defined as time–domain utmost value of absolute response acceleration of theIth floor. Peak value ofMRAiialong tallness of the construction is defined asPMRA. This index is compared in two alternate linear every bit good as nonlinear SSI status as introduced in Fig. 2. In 2nd instance, foundation upheaval and dirt output is permitted during dynamic time–history analyses. Comparison of the two SSI status reveals swaying isolation effects of foundation upheaval and dirt output on commanding accelerations transmitted to the superstructure when subjected to near–fault land dazes. To quantify the rocking isolations effects of nonlinear SSI on commanding familial accelerations, the undermentioned index is defined: img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1571341.005.png"/ whereqacceldenotes maximal response acceleration ratio which is equal toPMRAat nonlinear SSI status,( NLSSI ) PMRA ( LSSI ) PMRAdivided by the same value at additive SSI status, . V. S HOCK RESPONSE SPECTRA ( SRS ) OF THE SOIL–STRUCTURE SYSTEMS Vibration transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is evaluated in this subdivision utilizing daze response spectrum. As illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4, the ordinate of each SRS curve represents theQratio as introduced in ( 6 ) . The abscissa T/Tof the SRS represents the ratio of the excitement pulsation continuanceaccelT to the natural periodThymineof the swaying isolation ( or natural period of swaying response of the foundation ) . Almost 16000 clip history analyses are performed in this survey. Consequently, the SRS braces with uninterrupted and dash lines in Figs. 3 and 4 represent mean and standard divergence ( s ) of the primary SRS curves ensemble, severally. The SRS braces are plotted with regard to different incident pulsation periods t to demo the consequence of daze strength. In Fig. 3 the consequence of dirt type on quiver transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is investigated through comparing SRSs for different values ofa, ( 3 ) . The consequences show that nonlinear SSI is likely to magnify the acceleration responses when subjected to long–period incident pulsations with0normalized period T/Ttranscending a threshold. It is shown that this threshold T/Tcorrelatives with dirt type. In more precise words, whenalessenings ( i.e. at more dense sites ) the threshold T/Tmoves to left as displayed in Fig. 3. For case, 0 the incident pulsation with normalized period greater than the threshold, T/T= 1.25, leads to response elaboration in a 10–story edifice located on really heavy site (a=0.25 ) . On the other manus, comparing single SRS curves on each graph of Fig. 3 reveals that increasing the land daze strength consequences in steeper inclines of SRSs. This fact shows that nonlinear SSI is more activated topic to incident pulsations with greater amplitudes. In Fig. 4 the consequence of incident pulsation type on quiver transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is examined through comparing SRSs of frontward directionality versus fling measure pulsations. The consequences show that long–period frontward directionality pulsations can ensue in important response elaboration, particularly when the pulse amplitude intensifies. In contrast, nonlinear SSI topic to short–period frontward directionality pulsations with high amplitudes can cut down the acceleration responses down to about 50 % for the 15–story edifice as presented in Fig. 4. In add-on, the two graphs of Fig. 4 depict that quiver transmissibility of nonlinear SSI is more period–dependent topic to send on directionality pulsations compared to fling measure land daze. VI. C ONCLUSION This paper concerns shock response analysis of the soil– construction systems induced by near–fault pulsations. To this terminal, quiver transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is evaluated utilizing daze response spectra. An in–depth parametric survey including about 16000 clip history analyses are performed. Medium–to–high rise edifices with different aspect ratios every bit good as foundations with different safety factors located on different dirt types are studied. Two types of near–fault land dazes, i.e. forward directionality and fling measure pulsations, with different pulsation periods every bit good as pulse amplitudes are selected as input excitement. Linear versus nonlinear SSI status are considered. Maximal response acceleration ratioQ is selected as quiver transmissibility index in additive compared to nonlinear SSI status. The consequences show that nonlinear SSI is likely to magnify the acceleration responses when subjected to long–period incident pulsations with normalized period T/Ttranscending a threshold. This threshold T/Tcorrelatives with dirt type, so that increasing shear–wave speed of the implicit in dirt, the threshold T/T lessenings. On the other manus, addition in land daze strength consequences in steeper inclines of SRSs, i.e. greater period dependence. Furthermore, comparing SRSs of frontward directionality versus fling measure pulsations reveals that long–period frontward directionality pulsations can ensue in important response elaboration, particularly when the pulse amplitude intensifies. In contrast, short–period frontward directionality pulsations with high amplitudes are significantly isolated. In add-on, quiver transmissibility of nonlinear SSI is more period–dependent topic to send on directionality pulsations compared to fling measure land daze. Mentions Piersol, A. G. , and Paez, T. L. , â€Å"Harris’ Shock and Vibration HandboOklahoma, † 6Thursdayed. , McGraw–Hill, New York, 2010. Skinner, R. I. , Robinson, W. H. , and McVerry, G. H. , â€Å"An debut to seismic isolation, † Wiley, Chichester, England, 1993. Naeim, F. , and Kelly, J. M. , â€Å"Design of seismal stray constructions: From theory to pattern, † Wiley, Chichester, England, 1999. Hall, J. F. , Heaton, T. H. , Halling, M. W. , and Wald, D. J. â€Å"Near–source land gesture and its effects on flexible edifices, †Earthquake Spectra, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 569– 605, 1995. Heaton, T. H. , Hall, J. F. , Wald, D. J. , and Halling, M. V. , â€Å"Response of high–rise and base–isolated edifices in a conjectural Mw 7.0 blind thrust temblor, †Science, vol. 267, pp. 206–211, 1995. Anastasopoulos, I. , Gazetas, G. , Loli, M. , Apostolou, M. , and Gerolymos, N. , â€Å"Soil failure can be used for seismal protection of constructions, †Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, vol. 8, pp. 309–326, 2010. Housner, G. W. , â€Å"The behaviour of upside-down pendulum constructions during temblors, †Bulletin of seismological society of America, vol. 53, no. 2: pp. 403–417, 1963. Koh, A. , and Hsiung, C. , â€Å"Base Isolation Benefits of 3–D Rocking and Uplift. I: Theory, †ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanicss, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 1–18, 1991. Koh, A. A ; Hsiung, C. â€Å"Base Isolation Benefits of 3–D Rocking and Uplift. II: Numeric Example, †ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanicss, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 19–31, 1991. Alhan, C. , and Surmeli, M. , â€Å"Shear edifice representations of seismically stray edifices, †Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, vol. 9, pp. 1643–1671, 2011. ASCE/SEI 7–10, â€Å"Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, † Published by American Society of Civil Engineers, 2010. Fenves, G. L. , Mazzoni, S. , McKenna, F. , and Scott, M. H. , â€Å"Open System for Earthquake Engineering Simulation ( OpenSEES ), † Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California: Berkeley, CA, 2004. Wolf, J. P. , and Deeks, A. J. , â€Å"Foundation Vibration Analysis: a Strength–of–Materials Approach, † Elsevier publications, 2004. Wolf, J. P. , â€Å"Foundation Vibration Analysis Using Simple Physical Models, † Englewood Cliffs ( NJ ) : Prentice–Hall, pp. 293–307, 1994. Sasani, M. , and Bertero, V. â€Å"Importance of terrible pulse–type land gesture in performance–based technology: historical and critical reappraisal, † inProc. of the 12th universe conf. on temblor technology, New Zealand, no. 8, 2000. Kalkan, E. , Kunnath, S. K. , â€Å"Effects of Flinging Step and Forward Directivity on Seismic Response of Buildings, †Earthquake Spectra, vol. 22, pp. 367–390, 2006. Alavi, B. , and Krawinkler, H. , â€Å"Behavior of minute defying frame constructions subjected to near–fault land gestures, †Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, vol. 33, pp. 687–706, 2004. Sehhati, R. , Rodriguez–Marek, A. , ElGawady, M. , and Cofer, W. F. , â€Å"Effects of near–fault land gestures and tantamount pulsations on multi– narrative constructions, †Engineering Structures, vol. 33, pp. 767–779, 2011. How to cite Numerical Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction at Seismic Fault Pulses, Essay examples

Intelligence free essay sample

INTRODUCTIONA general definition of Intelligence is general cognitive ability, including problem solving skills, ability to reason, understand abstract and complex concepts and ideas, learn quickly and learn from experiences. In the 20th century there was increased research done on the role of genetics in behaviour. With Albert Binet developing an IQ test to measure Intelligence. There has been an ongoing debate regarding intelligence, whether it is inherited or result of an environment stimuli.What influences behaviour more: Nature or Nurture? Is a question no one can answer definitively. With years going by and research being done the answer sways back and forth continuously.In 1963, an influential article in Science reviewed family, twin, and adoption data for IQ scores and concluded that genetic influence is important (Erlenmeyer-Kimling Jarvik, 1963). The twin studies of Steven Vandenberg on cognitive abilities in the 1960s confirmed the results of the earlier twin and adoption studies in pointing to genetic influence (Vandenberg, 1968). In 1969 when Arthur Jensen published a paper and suggested that there might be an average IQ differences between ethnic groups which may be due to genetic factors. Richard Herrnstein (1973) also suggested that IQ differences between classes might also be due to genetics as being in a socioeconomic upper class is a result of good genes.In the 1980s with the advances made in molecular genetics, people started to be more interested and excited about this study. For example, a 1987 survey of around thousand social and behavioral scientists and educators concluded that most of them had accepted a significant role o in IQ scores (Snyderman Rothman, 1987).There is research that supports the claim that nature plays a role in intelligence. For example, there is research that proves that poverty influences the development of childrens intelligence. Also the statement made by John B. Watson: Give me a dozen healthy infants and my own specified world to bring them up in, and Ill guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select-doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggar and thief, regardle ss of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. However, with advances in research and technology, scientists have recently identified forty genes that influence intelligence. The research on 60,000 adults and 20,000 children uncovered 40 new genes that play a role in intelligence, which brings the total of the known genes that influence IQ to 52. This further proves that genetics does influence Intelligence and that intelligence is to some extent hereditary.Wahlsten (1997) said the adoption studies conducted in France have found that by putting an infant from a low socio economic status to a home of high economic status improved the childhood IQ by 12 to 16 points. From this we can conclude that intelligence can be a result of both genetics and environment. It can be inferred that a combination of genes and environment produce intelligence.WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?Despite a long history of research and debate, there is still no standard definition of intelligence. This has led some to believe that intelligence may be approximately described, but cannot be fully defined. A typical dictionary definition of  intelligence  is the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge. Intelligence includes the ability to benefit from past experience, act purposefully, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. Intelligence can also be defined as the ability that intelligence tests measure. There is a long history of disagreement about what actually constitutes intelligence.Psychologists have long debated how to best conceptualize and measure intelligence (Sternberg, 2003). These questions include how many types of intelligence there are, the role of nature versus nurture in intelligence, how intelligence is represented in the brain, and the meaning of group differences in intelligence. Intelligence refers to ones cognitive abilities, which include memory, comprehension, understanding, reasoning, and abstract thought.Scientists generally agree that intelligence can be captured by psychometric tests. But the study of intelligence is dogged by questions of just how much IQ contributes to an individuals success and well-being, how genes and environment interact to generate smarts and why the average IQ score rose throughout the world during the twentieth century.In the early 1900s, the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–1914) and his colleague Henri Simon (1872–1961) began working in Paris to develop a measure that would differentiate students who were expected to be better learners from students who were expected to be slower learners. The goal was to help teachers better educate these two groups of students. Binet and Simon developed what most psychologists today regard as the first intelligence test, which consisted of a wide variety of questions that included the ability to name objects, define words, draw pictures, complete sentences, compare items, and construct sentences.Binet and Simon (Binet, Simon, ; Town, 1915; Siegler, 1992) believed that the questions they asked their students, even though they were on the surface dissimilar, all assessed the basic abilities to understand, reason, and make judgments. And it turned out that the correlations among these different types of measures were in fact all positive; students who got one item correct were more likely to also get other items correct, even though the questions themselves were very different.On the basis of these results, the psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) hypothesized that there must be a single underlying construct that all of these items measure. He called  the construct that the different abilities and skills measured on intelligence tests have in common the  general intelligence factor (g). Virtually all psychologists now believe that there is a generalized intelligence factor, g, that relates to abstract thinking and that includes the abilities to acquire knowledge, to reason abstractly, to adapt to novel situations, and to benefit from instruction and experience (Gottfredson, 1997; Sternberg, 2003). People with higher general intelligence learn faster.Soon after Binet and Simon introduced their tes t, the American psychologist Lewis Terman (1877–1956) developed an American version of Binets test that became known as the  Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. The Stanford-Binet is a measure of general intelligence made up of a wide variety of tasks including vocabulary, memory for pictures, naming of familiar objects, repeating sentences, and following commands. Although there is general agreement among psychologists that g exists, there is also evidence for  specific intelligence (s),  a measure of specific skills in narrow domains. One empirical result in support of the idea of s comes from intelligence tests themselves. Although the different types of questions do correlate with each other, some items correlate more highly with each other than do other items; they form clusters or clumps of intelligences.One distinction is between  fluid intelligence, which refers to the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems and performing activities, and  crystallized intelligence, which refers to the accumulated knowledge of the world we have acquired throughout our lives (Salthouse, 2004). These intelligences must be different because crystallized intelligence increases with age—older adults are as good as or better than young people in solving crossword puzzles—whereas fluid intelligence tends to decrease with age (Horn, Donaldson, ; Engstrom, 1981; Salthouse, 2004).Other researchers have proposed even more types of intelligences. L. L. Thurstone (1938) proposed that there were seven clusters of  primary mental abilities, made up of word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. But even these dimensions tend to be at least somewhat correlated, showing again the importance of g.One advocate of the idea of multiple intelligences is the psychologist Robert Sternberg. Sternberg has proposed a  triarchic (three-part) theory of intelligence  that proposes that  people may display more or less analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. Sternberg (1985, 2003) argued that traditional intelligence tests assess analytical intelligence, the ability to answer problems with a single right answer, but that they do not well assess creativity (the ability to adapt to new situations and create new ideas) or practicality (e.g. , the ability to write good memos or to effectively delegate responsibility).As Sternberg proposed, research has found that creativity is not highly correlated with analytical intelligence (Furnham ; Bachtiar, 2008), and exceptionally creative scientists, artists, mathematicians, and engineers do not score higher on intelligence than do their less creative peers (Simonton, 2000). Furthermore, the brain areas that are associated with  convergent thinking, thinking that is directed toward finding the correct answer to a given problem, are different from those associated with  divergent thinking, the ability to generate many different ideas for or solutions to a single problem (Tarasova, Volf, ; Razoumnikova, 2010). On the other hand, being creative often takes some of the basic abilities measured by g, including the abilities to learn from experience, to remember information, and to think abstractly (Bink ; Marsh, 2000).Intelligence is challenging to study, in part because it can b e defined and measured in different ways. Most definitions of intelligence include the ability to learn from experiences and adapt to changing environments. Elements of intelligence include the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, and understand complex ideas. Many studies rely on a measure of intelligence called the intelligence quotient (IQ).Intelligence quotients, or IQ tests, compare your performance with other people your age who take the same test. These tests dont measure all kinds of intelligence, however. For example, such tests cant identify differences in social intelligence, the expertise people bring to their interactions with others. There are also generational differences in the population as a whole. Better nutrition, more education and other factors have resulted in IQ improvements for each generation.According to Peter Taylor in The Birth of Project Intelligence, Intelligence is described as a general ability, this ability can be broken down into 6 separate abilities: Adaptability to a new environment or to changes in the current environment, Capacity for knowledge and the ability to acquire it, Capacity for reason and abstract thought, Ability to comprehend relationships, Ability to evaluate and judge, Capacity for orig inal and productive thought. At least two major consensus definitions of intelligence have been proposed. First, from Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns a report of a task force convened by the American Psychological Association:Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given persons intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of intelligence are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena.A second definition of intelligence comes from Mainstream Science on Intelligence, which was signed by 52 intelligence researchers in 1994:a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—catching on, making sense of things, or figuring out what to do.   (reprinted in Gottfredson, 1997, p. 13)FACTORS INFLUENCING INTELLIGENCEIntelligence has both genetic and environmental causes, and these have been systematically studied through a large number of twin and adoption studies (Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin, DeFries, Craig, ; McGuffin, 2003). These studies have found that between 40% and 80% of the variability in IQ is due to genetics, meaning that overall genetics plays a bigger role than does environment in creating IQ differences among individuals (Plomin ; Spinath, 2004). The IQs of identical twins correlate very highly (r  = .86), much higher than do the scores of fraternal twins who are less genetically similar (r  = .60). And the correlations between the IQs of parents and their biological children (r  = .42) is significantly greater than the correlation between parents and adopted children (r  = .19). The role of genetics gets stronger as children get older. The intelligence of very young children (less than 3 years old) does not predict adult intelligence, but by age 7 it does, and IQ scores remain very stable in adulthood (Deary, Whiteman, Starr, Whalley, ; Fox, 2004).But there is also evidence for the role of nurture, indicating that individuals are not born with fixed, unchangeable levels of intelligence. Twins raised together in the same home have more similar IQs than do twins who are raised in different homes, and fraternal twins have more similar IQs than do not twin siblings, which is likely due to the fact that they are treated more similarly than are siblings. The fact that intelligence becomes more stable as we get older provides evidence that early environmental experiences matter more than later ones. Environmental factors also explain a greater proportion of the variance in intelligence for children from lower-class households than they do for children from upper-class households (Turkheimer, Haley, Waldron, DOnofrio, ; Gottesman, 2003). This is because most upper-class households tend to provide a safe, nutritious, and supporting environment for children, whereas these factors are more variable in lower-class households.Social and economic deprivation can adversely affect IQ. Children from households in poverty have lower IQs than do children from households with more resources even when other factors such as education, race, and parenting are controlled (Brooks-Gunn ; Duncan, 1997). Poverty may lead to diets that are undernourishing or lacking in appropriate vitamins, and poor children may also be more likely to be exposed to toxins such as lead in drinking water, dust, or paint chips (Bellinger ; Needleman, 2003). Both of these factors can slow brain development and reduce intelligence. If impoverished environments can harm intelligence, we might wonder whether enriched environments can improve it. Government-funded after-school programs such as Head Start are designed to help children learn. Research has found that attending such programs may increase intelligence for a short time, but these increases rarely last after the programs end (McLoyd, 1998; Perkins ; Grotzer, 1997). But other studies suggest that Head Start and similar programs may improve emotional intelligence and reduce the likelihood that children will drop out of school or be held back a grade (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, ; Mann 2001).Intelligence is improved by education; the number of years a person has spent in school correlates at about  r  = .6 with IQ (Ceci, 1991). In part this correlation may be due to the fact that people with higher IQ scores enjoy taking classes more than people with low IQ scores, and they thus are more likely to stay in school. But education also has a causal effect on IQ. Comparisons between children who are almost exactly the same age but who just do or just do not make a deadline for entering school in a given school year show that those who enter school a year earlier have higher IQ than those who have to wait until the next year to begin school (Baltes ; Reinert, 1969; Ceci ; Williams, 1997). Childrens IQs tend to drop significantly during summer vacations (Huttenlocher, Levine, ; Vevea, 1998), a finding that suggests that a longer school year, as is used in Europe and East Asia, is beneficial.It is important to remember that the relative roles of nature and nurture can never be completely separated. Both of them play integral roles in the forming of ones intelligent quotient and thus raises the question on whether the vs in nature and nurture is truly a pre-requisite.INFLUENCE OF GENETICS ON INTELLIGENCEMany researchers have studied how our intellectual abilities are affected by genetics. Most believ e that a large number of genes each play a small role in our intellectual abilities, but it is difficult to isolate and identify these genes. A new study, published in Nature Genetics, involving 80, 000 people have identified a number of genes which contribute to an individuals intelligence. Researchers have conducted many studies to look for genes that influence intelligence. Many of these studies have focused on similarities and differences in IQ within families, particularly looking at adopted children and twins. These studies suggest that genetic factors underlie about 50 percent of the difference in intelligence among individuals. Researchers have found 69 genes that correlate with higher education attainment—three of those have direct relationship with Cognitive Abilities.Studies of twins have confirmed genetics basis for intelligence, personality and other aspects of behavior. Twin studies suggest that identical twins IQs are more similar than those of fraternal twins (Plomin Spinath, 2004). Siblings reared together in the same home have IQs that are more similar than those of adopted children raised together in the same environment (McGue ; others, 1993). In addition to inherited characteristics, other biological factors such as maternal age, prenatal exposure to harmful substances and prenatal malnutrition may also influence intelligence.